In United States v. Virginia (1996), the Supreme Court held that the Virginia Military Institute's male-only admissions policy violated equal protection, explaining that a state must show an 'exceedingly persuasive justification' for gender-based classifications, and that offering a separate women's program was not equal—because it lacked the same benefits and prestige. This case exemplifies substantive equality because the Court looked at real-world disparities, not just formal separate-but-equal provisions.